The Reign of King Louis XIV Essay -- European History

The Reign of King Louis XIV Louis XIV had a passion for glory and used it to fight four wars because he was motivated by personal and dynastic considerations. King Louis XIV was born in 1638. He became king at age four, and received only a mediocre education. He was taught nothing beyond pious works and decorous behavior at religious observances. He came into full power of France in 1661. Louis married Maria Theresa of Spain in 1659. When Mazarin died in 1661, Louis decided he didn’t want a powerful advisor and then started to change history. Louis had the longest reign in European history of 73 years. King Louis XIV distrusted the Protestants and everything they stood for. Because of that, he revoked the Edict of Nantes and torn down the walls that surrounded Protestant towns. The walls were erected to help the Protestants feel safer. He spent a lot of tax money building Versailles. That angered most people, because Versailles was only for Louis and his rich noblemen and their wives. Louis also increased taxes to stave off financial disaster, which failed. The people rev...

1831: Year of Eclipse Essay

On February 12, 1831, a full eclipse of the sun darkened America’s skies. Newspapers nationwide heralded its arrival, and commentators congratulated themselves that the â€Å"idle fears and gloomy forebodings†Ã¢â‚¬â€œthe past superstitions attached to such events–had been replaced by â€Å"pleasing admiration† of the wonders of nature and society’s progress in scientific understanding. However, says Masur (Rites of Execution), professor of history at the City University of New York, what unfolded in 1831 belies this chauvinistic claim of America’s advancement. Rather, he builds a case that America’s future faced inevitable upheaval directly linked to the failure of the founders to resolve two fundamental conflicts: the contradiction between a country founded on the â€Å"inalienable rights of man† embracing the cruelty and inhumanity of slavery, and the tension between a federal government intent on preserving the Union and the states’ claims of uncontestable sovereignty. Masur draws upon an exceptionally rich array of voices, quoting generously from figures as divergent as slave rebellion leader Nat Turner, abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Andrew Jackson. Masur vividly chronicles the plight of the Cherokee, who despite their willingness to cooperate with the U.S. government, were forced from their homeland and marched west on the infamous Trail of Tears. Tocqueville traveled to the U.S. in 1831, prompting him to write Democracy in America, and as Masur notes, Tocqueville’s prescient observations illuminated not only the intractable problems of slavery and race in America but also the extraordinary uniqueness and energy of America’s citizens. Masur’s accessible and intriguing work, which appeals to a wide and diverse audience interested in American history, raises the year 1831, not necessarily one that stands out in most Americans’ minds, above insignificance. Passing in and out of Favor Although single-year studies fell out of favor amid the social-history boom of the 1970’s and 1980’s, they have a place in history circles. Among Mr. Masur’s favorite histories, and a work that influenced his own, is The Year of Decision: 1846, a study published in 1943 by the historian Bernard DeVoto, who went on to win the Pulitzer and Bancroft Prizes in his field. A huge best seller in its time, the volume is now seldom read or studied even by professional historians. Now and then, other historians have made similar forays, usually concentrating on a year marked by war, bloodshed, or political upheaval, like Kenneth Milton Stampp’s America in 1857: A Nation on the Brink. Lately, though, such experiments seem to be flourishing–and the more obscure the year, the better. Hence titles like American Nervousness, 1903: An Anecdotal History, by Tom Lutz, a study of the physical and psychological illnesses that plagued elite Americans at the turn of the century. Or 1910: The Emancipation of Dissonance, by Thomas Harrison, a look at how and why harmony came to be replaced by dissonance in painting, music, and other art forms. â€Å"We’ve shifted away from causal and exemplary history, back toward epochal history, which constructs microcosms and tells you what the whole universe is like from the standpoint of one year, or in some cases, one grand age,† says Douglas Mitchell, the veteran humanities editor at the University of Chicago Press. Part of the reason is historians’ renewed interest in narratives as a way to create synthesis. A single year is a manageable way to narrow the scope, deal in specifics, yet still work with a beginning, middle, and end. â€Å"An annualized history is a way to bridge the gap between conventional narratives, which tend to be driven by political events, and newer histories, which have no clear linear narrative,† says Alan Brinkley, a professor of history at Columbia University. â€Å"Focusing on a year allows one to combine a narrative of sorts with explorations of many areas of life as developed by newer histories.† Mr. Masur’s book, as well as John E. Wills Jr.’s upcoming 1688: A Global History, are colorfully written and rely on dramatic scene-setting. (1688 even does without footnotes.) Though bound by time, they range widely across place, focusing on what happens when people travel and make contact, and how similar ideas can echo in very different settings. â€Å"Historians have long called for some kind of creative synthesis, but the problem has been how to incorporate the voices of elites and workers, men and women, Indians and slaves, celebrators and detractors, and weave them together in a coherent story,† says Mr. Masur. Instead of talking yet again about whether to use narrative techniques in writing history, scholars will show how it’s done at a â€Å"reading slam† at this month’s American Historical Association conference. There Mr. Masur will read from his new book. Digging Deep into a Single Year If nothing else, digging deep into a single year can lead to nifty juxtapositions. The portentous eclipse that gives Mr. Masur his title turned up in Nat Turner’s confession, New England sermons, and newspaper editorials opposed to the reelection of President Andrew Jackson. In 1688, as the English seaman William Dampier was sending vivid descriptions home about the â€Å"miserablest people in the world†Ã¢â‚¬â€œAustralian aborigines–two Jesuit missionaries joined a thousand Chinese cavalrymen on a sophisticated expedition to survey northern China. For a world historian, looking at a year like 1688 is a way to avoid Eurocentrism while still capturing the flow of people and commodities, contends Mr. Wills, a professor of history at the University of Southern California. â€Å"The making of the modern world is the result of worldwide processes in which the Europeans are not the only active originators,† he says. Of course, Mr. Wills admits in his introduction that many of the people he describes wouldn’t have known the year as 1688 at all, given their varied calendars. Even so, â€Å"signs of the basic shifts that created our own very different world† are there: â€Å"The rise of science; the growth of cities and commerce; government policies to promote economic growth; an immense variety of writing and publishing, some of it for broad urban audiences; some very individual and idiosyncratic acceptances and reinterpretations of the great religions; protests against slavery and the subordination of women.† â€Å"This is all part of one world in a strong, simultaneous sense,† the professor says. Text and Context English professors, too, have been bitten by the one-year bug. While historians try to write with more literary flair, literature scholars have returned to history, doing archival research to put novels and poems in political and cultural context. Yet many scholars believe that move has gone too far; literature simply gets reduced to historical evidence, and the particular qualities of certain literary genres get lost in the shuffle. Studying a single year helps to keep both text and context in focus, says Michael North, a professor of English at the University of California at Los Angeles. â€Å"It’s a way of compromising between the demands of history and the demands of structure,† says Mr. North, the author of Reading 1922: A Return to the Scene of the Modern. â€Å"There is an element of trying to define a zeitgeist,† adds Marshall Brown, a professor of English and comparative literature at the University of Washington, and the editor of Modern Language Quarterly. â€Å"Methodologically it’s a kind of gamble, a provocation to do interdisciplinary work.† Often such writing projects begin as classroom experiments. James Chandler, a professor of English language and literature at the University of Chicago, found that his graduate courses in Romantic poetry tended to be clustered around works published in two years, 1789 and 1819. Yet 1819 stood out for the remarkable poetry produced in a single year. Over time, Mr. Chandler decided to concentrate on that year, teaching the leading poets alongside historical novels and political texts important in their day. The result is England in 1819: The Politics of Literary Culture and the Case of Romantic Historicism, an ambitious volume that Mr. Brown calls the most-cited recent book in the field. 1819 is well known to Romanticists as the year that Shelley and Keats wrote much of their greatest poetry. But that’s not all. Byron began his most important poem, â€Å"Don Juan,† Coleridge delivered a series of philosophical lectures, and Hazlitt published two volumes of essays. Why so much good stuff? According to Mr. Chandler, writers for the first time were self-consciously speaking to and about their historical moment. 1819 was an extremely volatile year, marked by the Peterloo Massacre that nearly toppled the English government, leading to restrictions in freedom of the press and the right to assemble. People training for other work began to put words to paper. â€Å"People of extraordinary talent were drawn to the literary field because so much could happen there,† says Mr. Chandler, whose book takes its title from a pro-radical Shelley sonnet of the same name. The idea that you could sum up the spirit of the age in a single year, instead of, say, by citing the reign of a king or queen, was new to England. â€Å"You didn’t have year-end reviews in the 14th century. You didn’t really have them in the early 18th century,† the professor explains. By building the Romantic canon around poets, scholars have tended to ignore the historical novels that were popular at the time. Mr. Chandler gives them their due, featuring a chapter on Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe and The Bride of Lammermoor. â€Å"You do cultural history in this period and you realize that the entire country was obsessed with Scott,† says Mr. Chandler. For modernism, 1922 was the year to remember. James Joyce published Ulysses that year, and T. S. Eliot The Waste Land. The world of literature was never the same. â€Å"The world broke in two in 1922 or thereabouts,† wrote Willa Cather, who found her own brand of realism falling out of favor in the wake of the self-consciousness of high modernism. Works Cited Masur, Louis P., 1831: Year of Eclipse. Hill & Wang, 2001

Chanel’s Exhibition Compared to Vermibus Essay

Two exhibitions, both held during October 2012, will form the bases of this comparative essay. Chanel’s fashion photography exhibition entitled ‘The Little Black Jacket: Chanel’s Classic Revisited’ held at the Saatchi Gallery 12th October – 4th November 2012, and Vermibus’ display of appropriated adverts called ‘Unmasking Kate’ shown at the Moniker Arts Fair 11th -14th October 2012 will be used to explore the links each exhibition has to the themes of advertising and celebrity. ‘The Little Black Jacket: Chanel’s Classic Revisited’ is a celebration of the ‘timelessness’ (Saatchi, 2012) that is the Chanel jacket first introduced in 1953 (Armstrong, 2012), which Karl Lagerfeld, the creative director for Chanel, has revamped for the twenty-first century. ‘The Chanel jacket is a man’s jacket which has become a typical feminine piece†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Lagerfeld cited Making of- The Video, 2012), co-writer and photographer for the exhibition Lagerfeld, articulates the versatility of the garment, which is a key theme expressed throughout the show. The exhibition consists of 113 photographs of celebrities modelling (Saatchi, 2012) the jacket to which the entire exhibition is a tribute to (Saatchi, 2012). In contention with the notion of product and brand celebration the Spanish-born artist Vermibus presented his ‘Unmasking Kate’ series at the Moniker Arts Fair, ‘†¦now in its third year, the fair†¦[of] contemporary artists with urban roots†¦[is] an assembly united by a desire to rebel’ (Spence, 2012). Amongst the rebels is street artist and ex-branding photographer turned contemporary artist (lamono, 2012), Vermibus. The principle of his work is the appropriation of designer advertising posters found publically, as a statement against the image of our materialistic consumer driven society (Finucane, 2012). The title of Vermibus’ current series ‘Unmasking Kate’ refers to both his method of appropriating the posters and to his subject, namely the model Kate Moss. Vermibus argues that he uses Moss’s image ‘†¦because she has been the flagship of fashion for the last 20 years’ (Lamono, 2012) and is therefore an easily recognizable icon of modern fashion and consumer society ‘Kate Moss †¦had to construct thousands of masks to hide her fears†¦ [she] internalized those masks from the beginning and we bought them all†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢(Lamono, 2012) Vermibus reveals his ideas about masks fueled by the advertising industry. He further uses Moss’ image to show, simultaneously, the vulnerability of the human subject and the medias exploitation of the notion of celebrity. This theme parallels the way Andy Warhol used Marilyn Monroe’s image after her death (Modern Masters: Andy Warhol, 2010). Likewise, the Chanel exhibition echoes some Warhol themes, yet using the celebrity image to celebration its brand and product originally from the 1950’s (Modern Masters: Andy Warhol, 2010). The exhibitions work on Warhol themes differently either to criticize or celebrate advertising and product branding (Modern Masters: Andy Warhol, 2010). The title of the exhibition ‘The Little Black Jacket: Chanel’s classic revisited’ uses a play on the now clichà ©d notion of ‘the little black dress’ this seemingly playful reference to an item that Coco Chanel arguably made ubiquitous in 1926 (Fritz, 2012) as ‘a uniform for all women of taste’ (Crystal, 2007) carries the suggestion that the redesigning of the Chanel jacket has caused the garment to become as revolutionary and versatile as the little black dress and thus deserves the same universal appeal and fashionable credibility. This is further reflected in the exhibition’s promotional use of words such as ‘classic’ (Armstrong, 2012), ‘iconic’ (Saatchi, 2012) and ‘timeless’ (The Exhibition Opening – The Film, 2012), phrases often made in reference to the little black dress, conveying the item as an essential part of both a man and woman’s collection, in this way almost surp assing the success of the little black dress. Despite their difference, the most prominent connection between both exhibitions is the use of fashion photography. While Vermibus appropriates already publish photographic based adverts, Lagerfeld endeavours to create a series of fashion photographs, seemingly ready for an advertising campaigns (fig:1) sans the alluring taglines and buyer information. However, perhaps text is not necessary in conveying advertising messages: ‘As advertising has become so subject to the influence of photography that in some cases it is nothing other than fashion photography in its pure form.’ (Zahm, 2003 p.267) Lagerfeld’s photography could, therefore, be read as adverts for the Chanel jacket. This is illustrated in the use of a shallow depth of field added to the blank studio backdrop, uniform in all of Lagerfeld’s shots and reminiscent of many advertising campaigns. The technique seems to encourage the viewer to read the model as the main focus of the shot. The positioning of the models, strictly following the rule of thirds in all displayed images, seems actively styled to further accentuate the Chanel jacket as it is after all the subject of the photographic exhibition and perhaps the product to be endorsed. Looking at the images from this angle makes the work seems more sinister; putting the gallery viewer in the position of a consumer. Vermibus’ acquired advertising posters are often comparable in style and content to those featured in the Chanel exhibition. The Vermibus technique involves the systematic removal of layers of gloss and colour from the face of the models (fig:2) using solvents such as white spirit ‘in a unique painting counter-action’ (Open Walls Gallery, 2012) creating gestural, painterly brush marks reminiscent of Lucian Freud ‘s ‘naked’ series (fig:3). This method of working directly on to the photographic image creates an interesting juxtaposition between the flat, glossy, original photographic elements left untouched in the clothe and hair of the advert compared to the textured, painterly brush marks and colours crated by the solvents application on the glossy flesh of the models image (Finucane, 2012). This all helps to convert the adverts ‘†¦flawless and sanitized icons†¦into harrowing and contorted figures evocative of ‘Francis Bacon’s seminal works’ (Finucane, 2012) (fig:4). Through this treatment Vermibus is trying to uncover the essence of the figures by ‘dehumanizes those figures †¦ trying to find the aura of the individual, the personality that was lost†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢(Moniker Art Fair, 2012) in the world of advertisement, which seems in direct contention with the image and brand driven concept of the Chanel exhibition. Nonetheless, a form of distortion is also evident in the instillation part of the Chanel exhibition (fig:5), large glass etched version of selected prints create intertextual connections to the work of pop artist Roy Lichtenstein (fig:6) namely in the use of the pixelated bendy dots and primary colours. Through pixelating the benday dots Lagerfeld seems to marry a nostalgic past of image reproduction with modern-day digital innovations. This mirrors the merging of past and present in fashion exhibition. The link to Pop Art is further contextualised as the original Chanel jacket would have debuted around the time that the pop art movement was emerging (Gersh-Nesic, 2012). Unlike many Pop artists and Lagerfeld’s work, Vermibus eradicates branding from his work. Then returns the adverts to their original places in the advertising shelters as ‘gifts for the passers-by’ (Moniker Art Fair, 2012 p.19). As he stats that ‘private companies have taken over these spaces and what I want to do is return them to the public’ (Lamono, 2012). Chanel’s exhibition in this way also stands in contrast to the notion that a luxury brand ‘buys its way into our public spaces [and it] must be passively accepted as a one-way information flow.’ – (Klein, 2002). This is an argument held and expressed within the work of Vermibus. Instead of following this traditional model of advertising which relies heavily and spend vast amounts of money on limited single-way communication advertising (Jackson, 2009), Chanel arguably used a credible gallery to advertise under the guise of culture enrichment; a ‘more interactive, experiential and customised communication’ (Jackson, 2009, p. 273). However, Anderson (2000) argues that shows like this ‘illustrates [the] approaches taken by those in the commercial sphere, who are completely unfettered by museological traditions’ (Anderson, 2000, p.386). However, the Saatchi gallery; was set up by Charles Saatchi like many ‘high net worth individuals who operate their collections like museums for the public’ (picassomio.com) thus needs not to uphold traditions of the museum and is not duty bound to provide advertisement-free exhibitions. This may seem like devious undercover advertising ‘†¦however visitors will construct their own coherence†¦.which may or may not comply with that of the curator†¦'(Hooper-Greenhill, 2000, p.7) thus the advertising undertones of the exhibition may be passively accepted or rejected by viewers. In this way Chanel opens the flow of communication, although, arguably ‘even the best fashion photography is still an industry in service of industry’ (Zahm, 2003, p.265). Therefore, in blurring the lines between free cultural experiences and marketing gimmicks Chanel is clearly attempting to increase their revenue, as Lagerfeld affirms ‘I am not a commercial person †¦ but the final complement is†¦when you buy [the product]’ (The World of Karl Lagerfeld, c.2010). The fact that Lagerfeld’s creative and corporate elements merge in the exhibition is sinisterly convenient ‘†¦it is undeniable that the motivations of designers to co-operate with curators in having their work displayed in museums are largely about prestige, self-promotion and profit’ (Anderson, 2000, p. 375) marring the impression of such exhibitions as nothing more than an oblique advertising campaign. The ‘anti-publicist’ (Lamono, 2012) Vermibus’ illustrates his distain for the advertising industry which Lagerfelds work seems to represent, ‘the brands goal is to remove the model’s identity†¦the model is not a person any more but an image whose only value is for selling’ (Finucane, J. 2012). Vermibus’ ideas are reminiscent of the Situationist International’s concepts of the spectacle (Debord, 1957-61) equally, Vermibus’ appropriated posters carry strong connections to their notion of detournement ‘reusing preexisting†¦elements in a new ensemble’ (Debord, 1957-61). Thus Vermibus’ symbolic use of white sprit on adverts, can act as an allegory for reestablishing identity from the spectacle. This notion of brands taking over ones identity is also suggested in the Chanel exhibition video ‘†¦and with each person’s personality the jacket lives through them †¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Chloe Moretz cited in ‘The Exhibition Opening -The Film’ 2012) presenting the consumer product as a sort of symbiotic parasite using and replacing the identity of the wearer. This relates further to Williamson’s (1995) argument that ‘people are made to identify themselves with what they consume’ (Williamsons 1995 p.13). People become use brands and styles to project their identity through non-verbal communication thus: ‘Advertisements are selling us something else besides consumer goods†¦in providing us with a structure in which we and those goods are interchangeable, they are selling us ourselves.’ (Williamson, 1995 p13) This would explain why so many of the videos produced by Chanel surrounding the Black Jacket exhibition continuously stress the versatility of the jacket ‘†¦ You can do a lot with it†¦it suits everyone’ (Carine Roitfeld cited in Making of – The Video, 2012) conveying almost subliminally that people need to have this item that can fit their already established style; ‘the bohemian look, the Victorian look, the more kinda [sic] fun Kate Moss look†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Chloe Moretz cited in The Exhibition opening -the film’ 2012) further promoting its value and illustrating the ‘cannibalistic’ nature of fashion (Zahm, 2003 p. 266), which feed into the spectacle (Debord,1957-61) by assimilating and reproducing the same items and feeling of desire within society. The Chanel exhibitions use of celebrity images differs to that a Vermibus, as it seems to reflect the wider marketing idea that using celebrity endorsements is a ‘strong marketing plus†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Jackson, 2009 p191). Along side the photographers the behind the scenes film presents testimonials from celebrities ‘I consider it [the Chanel jacket] a prized possession. I feel very lucky’ (Sarah Jessica Parker cited in Making of- The Video, 2012) enticing the viewer to desire the item. Atkin (2010) contend that this is because humans are prehistorically ‘hardwired’ to want to glean information about how to become successful survivors by watching and copying the most successful in our society, i.e. the celebrities (Star Suckers, 2010). advertisers like Chanel are manipulating this evolutionary flaw to give ‘[a] product which initially has no meaning †¦.value by a person†¦who has a value to us†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Williamson, 1995, p.31). In contrast, celebrities are utilized by Vermibus to liberate the human being from the celebrity ‘mask’ evoking sympathy from the audience however, it is not clear how much the celebrity image entices the viewer’s prehistoric urge and interest in Vermibus’ work. In conclusion the two exhibitions on the surface have very different and opposing motivations. However, on inspection both deal with similar themes of fashion photography, advertising and celebrity in different ways. Although it falls beyond the scope of this essay compare every element of the exhibitions it has attempted to demonstrate that Lagerfeld’s approach has strong advertising undertone, while Vermibus’ work is anti-publicist in nature. Therefore, despite displaying work at arts fair, with the purpose of promoting and selling his work, the artist maintains his anti-establishment ethos ‘Being at [an art fair] is another way to attack from within’ (Lamono, 2012) which conveys the fundamental difference between the two exhibitions; they both exploit the image of celebrities to draw attention to their work but while Vermibus’ ideology remains paramount it would seem that for Lagerfeld the financial gain is the principal purpose of the exhibition. References: Anderson, F (2000) ‘Museum as Fashion Media’, in Bruzzi, S. and Gibson, C. (eds.) Fashion Cultures: Theories, Exploration and Analysis. London : Routledge pp. 371-389. Armstrong, L. (2012) ‘Chanel’s Little Black Jacket: How Chanel split the fashion atom’, Telegraph [Online] Available at: http://fashion.telegraph.co.uk/news-features/TMG9602510/Chanels-Little-Black-Jacket-How-Chanel-split-the-fashion-atom.html (Accessed 3/12/2012 Crystal, (2007) Little Black Dress Quotes. Available at: http://no-white-marks.blogspot.com/2007/10/little-black-dress-quotes.html (Accessed: 3/12/2012) Debord, G. (1957-61) ‘Writings from the Situationist International’ in Harrison,C and Wood, P.J. (eds.) (2002) Art Theory 1900-2000. Oxford:Blackwell. pp.701-707 Finucane, J. (2012) New art New Ideas London: Moniker Arts Fair Fritz, M. (2012) A Short History of the Little Black Dress. [Online]. Available at: http://www.realsimple.com/beauty-fashion/clothing/dresses-skirts/little-black-dress-00000000046948/index.html (Accessed: 29/11/12) Gersh-Nesic, B. (2012) About.com. Available at: http://arthistory.about.com/od/modernarthistory/a/Pop-Art-Art-History-101-Basics.htm (Accessed: 08/11/12) Hooper-Greenhill, E (2000) Museums and Interpretation of Visual Culture London: Routledge Jackson, T. and Shaw, D. (2009), Fashion Marketing Hampshire: Palgrave Klein, N. (2002) No Logos. New York:Picador Lamono (2012) Vermibus, Attack From Within [Online]. Available at: http://lamonomagazine.com/hunter/vermibus-ataque-desde-dentro/ (Accessed 28/11/2012) Making of – the video,’ 2012, by Chanel [online] available at: http://thelittleblackjacket.chanel.com/en_GB/makingof (Accessed 16/11/12) Modern Masters: Andy Warhol – Documentary – Artist, (2010) by Alastair Sooke, UK [Online] available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sWU7I6fGpMI&feature=share&list=LLU15G_d3N4Dd14H85X-eCCg (Accessed: 08/11/12) Moniker Art Fair, (2012) Moniker Art Fair About. [Online] Available at: http://www.monikerartfair.com/2012/ (Accessed: 18/10/12) Open Walls Gallery (2012) Vermibus [Online] Available at: http://www.openwallsgallery.com/artist/vermibus (Accessed 15/11/12) Picassomio, General Art Articles[online]. Available at: http://www.picassomio.com/art-articles/what-is-the-difference-between-a-museum-and-a-gallery.html (Accessed: 28/11/12) Saatchi gallery (2012) The Little Black Jacket. [Online] Available at: http://www.saatchi-gallery.co.uk/current/the_little_black_jacket.php (Accessed: 15/11/12) Spence, R. (2012) ‘Go forth and multiply’, The Financial Times [Online] Avalible at: http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/0a062f4c-1486-11e2-8cf2-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2EEPdaatD (Accessed: 14/11/12) Star Suckers, (2010) by Chris Atkins UK [DVD] The Exhibition Opening – The Film, (2012) by Chanel [Online] Available at: http://thelittleblackjacket.chanel.com/en_GB/exhibition/london (Accessed: 16/11/12) The World of Karl Lagerfeld, (c. 2010) by Anjali Rao China [Online] Avalible at: http://youtu.be/m0ljhBgy0Hc (Accessed 20/11/12) Williamsons, J (1995) Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising. London: Marion Boyars Zahm, O. (2003) ‘On the Marked Change in Fashion Photography’, in Welters, L. and Lillethon, A. (eds.) (2007) The Fashion Reader. Oxford: Berg, pp. 263-269.

Theoretical Orientation Example

Theoretical Orientation Example Theoretical Orientation – Coursework Example Cognitive-Behavioral Theoretical Orientation Theoretical OrientationCognitive-behavioral theoretical orientation is the most effective type of theoretical orientation compared to others, such as Psychodynamic theoretical orientation and Eclecticism theoretical orientation. The reason I have chosen this type of theoretical orientation is because it offers the best response to depression and anxiety that are the most common emotional and psychological issues. Essentially, such an approach is anchored on the precept that a person’s cognitions play an imperative role in as far as developing and maintaining behavior or emotions is concerned in a given life circumstance. These include assumptions, judgment appraisals and other forms of cognitive processes. According to Hofmann et al. (2012), this type of theoretical orientation is comparatively the most efficacious in anger management problems, anxiety disorders, bulimia, among others. He further reiterates that out of the eleven co mparative studies conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the theoretical orientations, Cognitive-behavioral theoretical orientation emerged as the best with seven reviews.It is also important to mention that most research has been focused on this type of theoretical orientation as opposed to the others and some of the research may include the meta-analysis. The associated research in the meta-analysis that supports this type of theoretical orientation stretches up to chronic pain psychological treatment. In addition, Cognitive-behavioral theoretical orientation is so effective when it comes to cannabis dependence (Dutra et al., 2008). One example where this type of theoretical orientation can be applied is in psychological counseling or treatment of the patients with anger expression and other related anger problems. One follow up question for the class to answer is â€Å"which is the most efficacious theoretical orientation for treatment or management of depression and anxiety?â₠¬ ReferencesTop of FormDutra, L., Stathopoulou, G., Basden, S. L., Leyro, T. M., Powers, M. B., & Otto, M. W. (January 01, 2008). A meta-analytic review of psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 2, 179-87. Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., Vonk, I. J. J., Sawyer, A. T., & Fang, A. (2012). The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 36(5), 427–440. doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1Bottom of FormTop of FormTop of Form

The Life and Death of Marie-Antoinette

The Life and Death of Marie-Antoinette Marie Antoinette (born Maria Antonia Josepha Joanna von Ãâ€"sterreich-Lothringen; November 2,  1755–October 16,  1793) was an Austrian noble and French Queen Consort whose position as a hate figure for much of France helped contribute to the events of the French Revolution, during which she was executed. Fast Facts: Marie-Antoinette Known For:  As the queen of Louis XVI, she was executed during the French Revolution. She is often quoted as saying, Let them eat cake (there is no proof of this statement).Also Known As:  Maria Antonia Josepha Joanna von Ãâ€"sterreich-LothringenBorn:  November 2, 1755,  in Vienna (now in Austria)Parents: Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor, and Austrian Empress Maria TheresaDied:  October 16, 1793, in Paris, FranceEducation: Private palace tutors  Spouse: King Louis XVI of FranceChildren: Marie-Thà ©rà ¨se-Charlotte, Louis Joseph Xavier Franà §ois, Louis Charles, Sophie Hà ©là ¨ne Bà ©atrice de FranceNotable Quote: I am calm, as people are whose consciences are clear. Early Years Marie-Antoinette was born on November 2nd, 1755. She was the eleventh daughter - eighth surviving - of Empress Maria Theresa and her husband Holy Roman Emperor Francis I. All the royal sisters were called Marie as a sign of devotion to the Virgin Mary, and so the future queen became known by her second name – Antonia – which became Antoinette in France. She was bought up, like most noble women, to obey her future husband, an oddity given that her mother, Maria Theresa, was a powerful ruler in her own right. Her education was poor thanks to the choice of tutor, leading to later accusations that Marie was stupid; in fact, she was able with everything she was competently taught. Marriage to Dauphin Louis In 1756 Austria and France, long term enemies signed an alliance against the growing power of Prussia. This failed to quell the suspicions and prejudices each nation had long held for each other, and these problems were to affect Marie Antoinette deeply. However, to help cement the alliance it was decided that a marriage should be made between the two nations, and in 1770 Marie Antoinette was married to the heir to the French throne, Dauphin Louis. At this point her French was poor, and a special tutor was appointed. Marie now found herself in her mid-teens in a foreign country, largely cut off from the people and places of her childhood. She was in Versailles, a world where almost every action was governed by fiercely employed rules of etiquette which enforced and supported the monarchy, and which the young Marie thought ridiculous. However, at this early stage, she tried to adopt them. Marie Antoinette displayed what we would now call humanitarian instincts, but her marriage was far from happy to start with. Louis was often rumored to have had a medical problem which caused him pain during sex, but it’s likely he simply wasn’t doing the right thing, and so the marriage initially went unconsummated, and once it was there was still little chance of the much-desired heir being produced. The culture of the time - and her mother - blamed Marie, while close observation and attendant gossip undermined the future queen. Marie sought solace in a small circle of court friends, with whom later enemies would accuse her of hetero- and homosexual affairs. Austria had hoped that Marie Antoinette would dominate Louis and advance their own interests, and to this end first Maria Theresa and then Emperor Joseph II bombarded Marie with requests; in the end, she failed to have any effect on her husband until the French Revolution. Queen Consort of France Louis succeeded to the throne of France in 1774 as Louis XVI; at first, the new king and queen were wildly popular. Marie Antoinette had little regard or interest in court politics, of which there was a lot, and managed to offend by favoring a small group of courtiers in which foreigners seemed to dominate. It’s not surprising that Marie seemed to identify more with people away from their homelands, but public opinion often angrily interpreted this as Marie favoring others instead of the French. Marie masked over her early anxieties about children by growing ever more interested in court pursuits. In doing so she gained a reputation for outward frivolity - gambling, dancing, flirting, shopping - which has never gone away. But she was irreverent out of fear, self-doubting rather than self-absorbed. As Queen Consort Marie ran an expensive and opulent court, which was to be expected and certainly kept parts of Paris employed, but she did so at a time when French finances were collapsing, especially during and after the American Revolutionary War, so she was seen as a cause of wasteful excess. Indeed, her position as a foreigner to France, her expenditure, her perceived aloofness and her early lack of an heir led extreme slanders to be spread about her; claims of extramarital affairs were among the more benign, violent pornography was the other extreme. Opposition grew. The situation isn’t as clear cut as a gluttonous Marie spending freely as France collapsed. While Marie was keen to use her privileges - and she did spend - Marie rejected the established royal traditions and began to reshape the monarchy in a new fashion, rejecting stark formality for a more personal, almost friendly touch, possibly derived from her father. Out went the previous fashion on all but key occasions. Marie Antoinette favored privacy, intimacy, and simplicity over the previous Versailles regimes, and Louis XVI largely agreed. Unfortunately, a hostile French public reacted badly to these changes, interpreting them as signs of indolence and vice, as they undermined the way the French court had been built to survive. At some point, the phrase ‘Let them eat cake’ was falsely attributed to her. Queen, and Finally a Mother In 1778 Marie gave birth to her first child, a girl, and in 1781 the much longed for male heir arrived. Marie began to spend more and more time involved with her new family, and away from previous pursuits. Now the slanders moved away from Louis’ failings to the question of who the father was. The rumors continued to build, affecting both Marie Antoinette - who had previously managed to ignore them - and the French public, who increasingly saw the queen as a debauched, idiotic spendthrift who dominated Louis. Public opinion, on the whole, was turning. This situation worsened in 1785-6 when Maria was publicly accused in the ‘Affair of the Diamond Necklace’. Although she was innocent, she took the brunt of the negative publicity and the affair discredited the whole French monarchy. As Marie did begin to resist the pleas of her relatives to influence the King on behalf of Austria, and as Marie became more serious and engaged in the politics of France fully for the first time - she went to government meetings on issues which didn’t directly affect her - it so happened that France began to collapse into revolution. The King, with the country paralyzed by debt, tried to force reforms through an Assembly of Notables, and as this failed he became depressed. With an ill husband, a physically ill son, and the monarchy collapsing, Marie too became depressed and deeply afraid for her future, although she tried to keep the others afloat. Crowds now openly hissed at the Queen, who was nicknamed ‘Madame Deficit’ over her alleged spending. Marie Antoinette was directly responsible for the recall of Swiss banker Necker to the government, an openly popular move, but when her eldest son died in June 1789, the King and Queen fell into distraught mourning. Unfortunately, this was the exact moment when politics in France decisively changed. The Queen was now openly hated, and many of her close friends (who were also hated by association) fled France. Marie Antoinette stayed, out of feelings of duty and the sense of her position. It was to be a fatal decision, even if the mob only called for her to be sent to a convent at this point The French Revolution As the French Revolution developed, Marie had an influence over her weak and indecisive husband and was able to partly influence royal policy, although her idea of seeking sanctuary with the army away from both Versailles and Paris was rejected. As a mob of women stormed Versailles to harangue the king, a group broke into the queen’s bedroom shouting they wanted to kill Marie, who had just escaped to the king’s room. The royal family was coerced into moving to Paris, and effectively made prisoners. Marie decided to remove herself from the public eye as much as possible, and hope that she wouldn’t be blamed for the actions of aristocrats who had fled France and were agitating for foreign intervention. Marie appears to have become more patient, more pragmatic and, inevitably, more melancholic. For a while, life went on in a similar manner to before, in a strange sort of twilight. Marie Antoinette became then more pro-active again: it was Marie who negotiated with Mirabeau on how to save the crown, and Marie whose distrust of the man led to his advice being rejected. It was also Marie who initially arranged for her, Louis and the children to flee France, but they only reached Varennes before being caught. Throughout Marie Antoinette was insistent she would not flee without Louis, and certainly not without her children, who were still held in better regard than the king and queen. Marie also negotiated with Barnave on what form a constitutional monarchy might take, while also encouraging the Emperor to start armed protests, and form an alliance which would - as Marie hoped - threaten France into behaving. Marie worked frequently, diligently and in secret to help create this, but it was little more than a dream. As France declared war on Austria, Marie Antoinette was now seen as a literal enemy of the state by many. It is perhaps ironic that at the same instance as Marie began to distrust Austrian intentions under their new Emperor - she feared they would come for territory rather than in defense of the French crown - she still fed as much information as she could gather to the Austrians to aid them. The Queen had always been accused of treason and would be again at her trial, but a sympathetic biographer like Antonia Fraser argues Marie always thought her missives were in the best interest of France. The royal family was threatened by the mob before the monarchy was overthrown and the royals properly imprisoned. Louis was tried and executed, but not before Marie’s closest friend was murdered in the September Massacres and her head paraded on a pike before the royal prison. Trial and Death Marie Antoinette now became known, to those more charitably disposed to her, as Widow Capet. Louis’ death hit her hard, and she was allowed to dress in mourning. There was now debate over what to do with her: some hoped for an exchange with Austria, but the Emperor wasn’t overly worried about his aunt’s fate, while others wanted a trial and there was a tug of war between French government factions. Marie now grew very physically ill, her son was taken away, and she was moved to a new prison, where she became prisoner no. 280. There were ad hoc rescue attempts from admirers, but nothing came close. As influential parties in the French government finally got their way - they had decided the public should be given the head of the former queen - Marie Antoinette was tried. All the old slanders were trotted out, plus new ones like sexually abusing her son. While Marie responded at key times with great intelligence, the substance of the trial was irrelevant: her guilt had been pre-ordained, and this was the verdict. On October 16, 1793, she was taken to the guillotine, exhibiting the same courage and coolness with which she had greeted each episode of danger in the revolution, and executed. A Falsely Maligned Woman Marie Antoinette exhibited faults, such as spending frequently in an era when royal finances had been collapsing, but she remains one of the most incorrectly maligned figures in Europe’s history. She was at the forefront of a change in royal styles which would be widely adopted after her death, but she was in many ways too early. She was let down deeply by the actions of her husband and the French state to which she had been sent and cast aside much of her criticized frivolity once her husband had been able to contribute a family, allowing her to ably fulfill the role society wanted her to play. The days of the Revolution confirmed her as an able parent, and throughout her life as consort, she exhibited sympathy and charm. Many women in history have been the subject of slanders, but few ever reached the levels of those printed against Marie, and even fewer suffered as greatly from the way these stories affected public opinion. It is also unfortunate that Marie Antoinette was frequently accused of exactly what her relatives demanded of her - to dominate Louis and push policies favoring Austria - when Marie herself had no influence over Louis until the revolution. The question of her treason against France during the revolution is more problematic, but Marie thought she was acting loyally to the best interests of France, which was to her the French monarchy, not the revolutionary government.

The Appeal of Urban Tourism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

The Appeal of Urban Tourism - Essay Example In order to fully understand the explanations as to why urban tourism has become so popular, especially recently for that matter, specific European cities of particular popularity in regards to tourism must be taken and thoroughly addressed in regards to the reasons for their popularity, what features and qualities they have, as well as any and all other key elements in relation to this. Ð ¡ities and the reasons behind the sudden surge of interest in urban tourism in this area, we can come to a clearer and more knowledgeable understanding on this issue. The aim of this paper is to discuss all of this, as well as the factors in relation to this, in order to bring the reader to a more intellectual point of view on the subject at hand. This is what will be dissertated in the following. Madrid is the capital and in fact the largest city in all of Spain, and is located on the river Manzanares in the center of the country. Because of its central location and high altitude, the climate of Madrid is characterized by warm dry summers and cool winters. The population of the city is estimated at roughly 3.2 million, with the urban area population estimated at approximately 5 million. Madrid is an incredibly popular city in Europe, highly in regards to the vast array of tourist attractions and nightlife which are available in the city. Madrid is considered to be among the top European destinations concerning art museums. In Madrid can be found the following three most important art museums, which are: Prado Museum (the most popular Golden Triangle of Art member which is known for such highlights as Diego Velazquez's Las Meninas and Francisco De Goya's La Maja Vestida and La Maja Desnuda. Thyssen Bornemisza Museum (established from a private mixed collection) Reina Sofia Museum (Modern art museum where Pablo Picasso's Guernica hangs) Madrid is also highly noted for its nightlife, and is famous for its discotheques. Bilbao, Tribunal, Alonso Martinez, in the geographical center, Moncloa on the west end, are populous night places, Sol and Huertas in the historic center, and quite abundant with tourists by day and night (especially Huertas). "Also popular is the practice of meeting in parks or streets with friends and drinking together (called 'botellion', from 'botella', bottle), but from a few years back drinking in the street is sanctioned with a fine and now young madrilenos drink together all around the city instead of in some well known places." (Wikipedia, 2006). In regards to transportation in and around Madrid, the city is served by Barajas International Airport; current passenger volumes for this airport range upwards of 40 million passengers per year, putting it in the top 20 busiest airports in the world. There is also the national railway system, Red Nacional de Ferrocarriles Espanoles (Renfe) which operates the vast majority of Spain's railways. As well, there is the metro - the Madrid Metro in this case - which, serving the city's population of some five million, is easily one of the most extensive and fastest-growing metro networks in the world. Madrid is a city of great monuments, whose highlights include such things as the medieval center dating back to the Habsburg Empire and the Prado Museum; however, Madrid is not just a cultural destination, and its lively metropolis is filled with many pubs, cafes, discotheques and nightclubs which are open late into the night. Amsterdam This city's title is highly recognizable and yet surprisingly enough there are only few people who

Access to Private Property on Social Network Platforms Research Paper

Access to Private Property on Social Network Platforms - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that there have been many cases of law enforcers resorting to investigations using social networks like Facebook for the purpose of gathering evidence. Very recently, according to Kashmir Hill, Phil Markoff was under investigation as the killer of an erotic masseuse. The police tried to track cell phone records at about the time of the incident, only to find hundreds of possibilities. That approach turned out to be a dead end. They tried the email account of Phil with Microsoft. Finally, it was on Facebook where the police hoped to get more information. Through a subpoena for Facebook to give the available information about Phil Markoff and the victim, the police were able to get (a) the basic info of the subscriber, and (2) photos, private messages, friends list. But it required more than a subpoena to get the second set of private information. The judge would have to review the subpoena and issue a warrant in order to protect   Ã‚  Face book from the possible fishing activity to find evidence. The appended exhibits disclose what Facebook provides after being ordered by the court to provide documents about a suspect. Unfortunately, none of these got to be utilized because that suspect committed suicide when charges were filed against him. A total of 71 pages were submitted for investigation purposes. At that time, it was not yet necessary for Facebook to demand a warrant from the court in order to provide more than just the basic information of the suspect.... Hana Noor Al-Deen and John Hendricks said (266) that the definition of social media from the court’s point of view has appeared to be â€Å"a public space where individuals have less of an expectation of privacy than they do in their physical homes†. As a matter of fact, the courts have rejected that idea of giving equal value to the privacy of a person at home along with properties at home and communications kept in social media platforms. The reasonable expectation that any person may demand out of social media can only be less than the privacy that one can obtain from a home. There is readily accessible information which can be viewed online because the settings of the account are open to the public. If more data will be needed, any person interested to gather additional information may simply join or pretend to be interested to join as friend or connection, so that he can view the other communications within an account. Even more private information made available t o a few or just the owner of the account cannot be accessed except through a subpoena or a court order. Finally, there are even more sensitive personal details that the law will not allow the webmaster or administrators to provide except through a warrant issued by the court. And the judge will not issue such a warrant without reviewing the grounds for overriding the provisions for the Stored Communications Act (SCA) which protects the privacy of personal information online. However, Glenn A. Fine (80) wrote that the Federal Bureau of Investigation is authorized â€Å"to obtain historical data from communications service provider† once the legal process is formally initiated. The SCA itself prohibits all Electronic